Child Health and Human Development Topics

Improving Mothers' Literacy Skills May be Best Way to Boost Children's Achievement

2010-10-26T13:04:00.000+08:00

Researchers funded by the National Institutes of Health concluded that programs to boost the academic achievement of children from low income neighborhoods might be more successful if they also provided adult literacy education to parents.

The researchers based this conclusion on their finding that a mother's reading skill is the greatest determinant of her children’s future academic success, outweighing other factors, such as neighborhood and family income.

The analysis, performed by Narayan Sastry, Ph.D., of the University of Michigan, and Anne R. Pebley, Ph.D., of the University of California, Los Angeles, examined data on more than 3,000 families.

The study, appearing in Demography, was supported by NIH's Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

"The findings indicate that programs to improve maternal literacy skills may provide an effective means to overcome the disparity in academic achievement between children in poor and affluent neighborhoods," said Rebecca Clark, Ph.D., chief of the Demographic and Behavioral Sciences Branch at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), the NIH institute that funded the study.

After mother's reading level, neighborhood income level was the largest determinant of children's academic achievement.

The researchers undertook the study to isolate factors contributing to the disparity in academic achievement that other studies have found between children in low income and affluent neighborhoods.

Sastry and Pebley's analysis was based on data collected between April 2000 and December 2001 as part of the Los Angeles Family and Neighborhood Survey, an ongoing examination of families in 65 LA county communities. The information included the results of reading and math assessments of 2,350 children ages 3 to 17, their mothers' education level, census records of neighborhood income, and family income and assets. The participants in the study were representative of the larger Los Angeles community.

Sastry and Pebley noted that neighborhood income had the largest impact on achievement for children ages 8 to 17, who are at the middle and higher end of the age range. This is consistent with the idea that the environment outside the home becomes more important as children grow older, they said.

"This analysis gives us a chance to isolate the different factors that affect children’s achievement," Dr. Sastry said. "Policy measures to encourage mixed-income neighborhoods, improve early childhood education, and build mothers’ reading skills each could have positive effects on children’s achievement scores."

Source: The above health news article is reprinted from materials provided by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD).

ADHD Symptoms in Children

2010-09-15T07:10:00.000+08:00

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is probably one of the most common mental disorder affecting children. Most children with ADHD have impaired functioning in multiple settings, including home, school, and in relationships with peers. If left untreated, the condition can continue throughout adolescence and adulthood.

In the United States, according to the National Institute of Mental Health, about 5 to 7 percent of all school age children meet the criteria for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The condition occurs more often in boys than girls. The reason for this is yet unclear.

Signs and symptoms of ADHD include problems with concentration (inattention), hyperactivity, and impulsivity. While it is normal for all children to be inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive sometimes, in children with the condition, these behaviors are more exaggerated and occur more often.

Signs that your child may have ADHD include¹:

Inattention. Children who have symtoms of inattention may:

Be easily distracted, miss details, forget things, and frequently switch from one activity to another
Have difficulty focusing on one thing
Become bored with a task after only a few minutes, unless they are doing something enjoyable
Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new
Have trouble completing or turning in homework assignments, often losing things (e.g., pencils, toys, assignments) needed to complete tasks or activities
Not seem to listen when spoken to
Daydream, become easily confused, and move slowly
Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others
Struggle to follow instructions.

Hyperactivity. Children who have symptoms of hyperactivity may:

Fidget and squirm in their seats
Talk nonstop
Dash around, touching or playing with anything and everything in sight
Have trouble sitting still during dinner, school, and story time
Be constantly in motion
Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities.

Impulsivity. Children who have symptoms of impulsivity may:

Be very impatient
Blurt out inappropriate comments, show their emotions without restraint, and act without regard for consequences
Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games
Often interrupt conversations or others' activities.

Sometimes, ADHD can be mistaken for other problems. It is important that if you notice these symptoms on your child, you should seek professional help so that appropriate treatment interventions will be done if diagnosis turns out to be positive.

More information about ADHD is available at the National Institute of Mental Health.

Source:
1. What are the symptoms of ADHD in children? National Institute of Mental Health. Available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/what-are-the-symptoms-of-adhd-in-children.shtml. Accessed on September 15, 2010.

Chemical Poisoning Treatment for Pediatric Use Approved by the FDA

2010-09-10T18:12:00.001+08:00

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved Thursday the pediatric use of Protopam Chloride (pralidoxime chloride), a drug used to treat poisoning by organophosphate pesticides and chemicals (e.g., nerve agents). The drug is approved to be administered either by intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) injections.

“We know this drug has been widely used for many years to treat poisoning in pediatric patients in emergency situations,” said Russell Katz, M.D., director of the Division of Neurology Products in the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. “Improving the drug’s label with new dosing information for children will give health care professionals better guidance on how to use this drug safely and effectively."

“It can be difficult to use IV drugs in children, particularly in emergency situations, so having the new option of IM injection may help health care professionals use this medicine quickly and accurately,” said Dianne Murphy, M.D., director of the FDA's Office of Pediatric Therapeutics.

Organophosphate pesticides are typically used in the farm setting and by professional exterminators. A person poisoned with organophosphate pesticides or chemicals (e.g., nerve agents) can have mild symptoms, such as a runny nose, teary eyes, or vomiting, to more serious symptoms such as difficulty breathing, weakness and convulsions. When chemical poisoning is suspected, medical attention should be sought immediately and the local poison control center should be contacted.

Protopam Chloride was approved by the FDA in 1964 to treat various types of pesticide and chemical poisoning in adults. The drug works as an antidote to pesticides and chemicals of the organophosphate class by slowing the attachment of the chemical to nerve endings.

Adverse reactions that have been reported in pediatric and adult use of the drug include: blurred vision, double vision, dizziness, headache, drowsiness, nausea, difficulty breathing, increased heart rate and increased blood pressure.

Protopam Chloride is made by Baxter Healthcare Corp., Deerfield, Ill.

The above news article is reprinted, with editorial adaptations, from materials provided by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Child Has Ear Infection, What to Do?

2010-09-08T10:54:00.000+08:00

Ear infection is common among children and, according to the National Institutes of Health, it is the most common reason for bringing a child to the doctor. Study shows that 3 out of 4 children in the United States will have had at least one ear infection by the time they're 3 years old. The good news is, ear infections, usually, are easily treated.

The condition is usually caused by a bacterial infection that causes inflammation in the middle ear, just behind the eardrum. Also called, otitis media, ear infections commonly appear after an upper respiratory infection or a cold.

Because the eustachian tube—a small tube to the ear—is not fully developed in children making it harder for fluid to drain out and for normal air to get in, they are more likely to develop ear infections.

Symptoms

When bacterial infection occurs in the middle ear, it usually causes inflammation. Fluid may build up behind the eardrum, causing severe ear pain. Sometimes, the condition may be accompanied by fever and temporary hearing loss.

Treatment

In most cases, ear infections go away on their own. But because ear pain is a problem, your health care provider may recommend pain relievers. If infection is confirmed, the doctor may prescribe antibiotics to kill the bacteria. It is important to give the antibiotic drug to the child exactly as directed to keep the infection from coming back even if the child starts to feel better after a day of treatment.

Sometimes, the doctor may advise you to wait if the earache goes away on its own, especially if diagnosis of the condition is uncertain. "Using antibiotics cautiously helps prevent bacteria from becoming resistant to antibiotics, which could create dangerous situations during future infections," according to the NIH.

If your child has recurrent infections, your doctor may recommend placing a small tube in the child's eardrum. Dr. Gordon Hughes, an ear, nose and throat specialist at NIH, says," Research has confirmed that the tubes can prevent infections and maintain a healthy middle ear environment." The most commonly used tubes stay in place for 6 to 9 months and require follow-up visits until they fall out.

Ear Infection Prevention

Experts recommend that the best way to prevent ear infections is to avoid things that put your child at risk, such as

avoiding second-hand smoke
discouraging the child from taking a bottle to bed
encouraging often washing of hands, and
making sure that your child gets the flu vaccine each year

Sources:
Medline Plus. Ear Infections. National Institutes of Health, Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/earinfections.html. Accessed on September 8, 2010.

NIH News in Health. An Ear Full of Trouble (When Your Child Has an Ear Infection). National Institutes of Health, Available at http://newsinhealth.nih.gov/issue/Sep2010/Feature2. Accessed on September 8, 2010.

Elevated Levels of Lead and Cadmium Associated with Delayed Onset of Puberty in Girls

2010-09-02T13:03:00.001+08:00

Researchers at the National Institutes of Health and other institutions have found that exposure to lead in childhood may delay the onset of puberty in young girls, with higher doses increasing the chance for later maturation.

The researchers analyzed data on blood drawn from more than 700 girls ages 6 to 11. They found that girls with elevated levels of lead (at or above five micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood) were 75 percent less likely than girls with low levels of lead to have key adolescent hormones at levels that are associated with the beginning of puberty. In girls with elevated levels of both lead and cadmium, this pattern was even more pronounced.

The researchers speculate that lead, alone or in concert with cadmium, might suppress the ovary’s production of hormones that prepare a young girl’s body to ovulate, or release an egg, for the first time.

Previous studies have shown that exposure to such heavy metals can disrupt normal hormone patterns or, in some cases, reproductive development. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advise treatment for lead exposure at levels exceeding 10 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood, but the study authors believe their findings suggest that lead exposure may have harmful effects at even lower levels.

"Our findings suggest childhood exposure to lead has worrisome effects as children age and reach adolescence," said lead first author Audra L. Gollenberg, Ph.D., a fellow at the NIH’s Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), where the research was conducted. "These issues are of concern in some parts of the United States as well as in countries where children are exposed to leaded gasoline, paint or industrial pollutants."

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the most common sources of lead exposure are deteriorating lead-based paint, lead contaminated dust, and lead contaminated residential soil (http://www.epa.gov/lead/).

Gollenberg worked with NICHD colleagues Mary L. Hediger, Ph.D., and Germaine M. Buck Louis, Ph.D., Peter A. Lee, M.D., of Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pa. and John H. Himes, Ph.D., M.P.H., of the University of Minnesota School of Public Health, Minneapolis.

Their findings appear in Environmental Health Perspectives, published by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

The researchers worked with data on blood and urine samples taken as part of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 1988 and 1994. They compared levels of lead and cadmium to levels of the reproductive hormone inhibin B, an indicator of the development of previously dormant egg cells in the ovaries. Inhibin B is known to increase steadily before the start of puberty.

Designating a specific threshold level for inhibin B, which indicated puberty, the researchers calculated the likelihood that girls with low, medium, or high levels of exposure to lead would reach that threshold. For all age groups, the researchers found that girls with higher blood levels of lead had reduced levels of inhibin B, and so were less likely to reach the threshold. High levels of lead and cadmium together were even more likely to be associated with low levels of inhibin B. (Cadmium levels of .27-3.7 nanograms per milliliter of urine were considered to be high.) According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, cadmium damages the kidneys, lungs and bones and increases the risk for cancer. Breathing cigarette smoke is a principal source of cadmium exposure.

In addition, the findings suggested the pubertal delay associated with lead was more prevalent in girls with iron deficiencies. Girls with even moderate levels of lead and low iron levels were much less likely to have reached the inhibin B threshold levels indicating puberty than their counterparts with low lead exposure and normal iron levels.

"Iron deficiency appears to be a critical factor in the context of lead exposure," Dr. Gollenberg said. "Health care providers may wish to pay particular attention to the importance of screening for iron deficiency among girls at high risk for exposure to lead."

Source:
The above article is reprinted, with editorial adaptations, from materials provided by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD).

Kabuki Syndrome Causing Gene Discovered

2010-08-24T16:42:00.000+08:00

Scientists discovered genetic variants that account for most cases of Kabuki syndrome, a rare disorder that causes multiple birth defects and mental retardation. The finding validates the use of a rapid and less expensive DNA sequencing strategy called exome sequencing.
Image of a gloved hand holding a test tube.

Kabuki syndrome was originally described by Japanese scientists in 1981. Patients with the disorder often have distinct facial features that resemble the makeup worn by actors of Kabuki, a Japanese theatrical form. The syndrome also brings cardiac problems, skeletal abnormalities, immunological defects and mild to moderate mental retardation. Some inherited cases suggested that Kabuki syndrome may be caused by genetic factors. However, researchers had been unable to pinpoint the genes involved.

A group of scientists at the University of Washington in Seattle recently showed that isolating and sequencing exons, rather than the entire genome, can yield important genetic information about a person quickly and at lower cost then whole genome sequencing. Exons are the parts of genome that contain the information needed to produce proteins, the building blocks of the body. The complete set of exons, the exome, makes up just a small fraction of the human genome—about 1%.

In the new study, the team—led by Dr. Michael Bamshad and Dr. Jay Shendure—sequenced the exomes of 10 unrelated people with Kabuki syndrome. The researchers compared the exomes of the 10 patients to the human genome sequence to look for differences associated with the syndrome. Their work was funded by NIH's National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and others. The results appeared on August 15, 2010, in the advanced online edition of Nature Genetics.

The researchers found no differences that were shared by all 10 people with Kabuki syndrome. They were able to identify several candidate genes, however, by conducting a less stringent analysis, looking for variants shared among subsets of the patients. They categorized each Kabuki case based on the patients' facial characteristics and the presence of developmental delay and/or major birth defects. They then categorized the functional impact of each newly identified genetic variant.

This combined analysis pointed to a gene called MLL2. The protein encoded by MLL2 is important for regulating how DNA and associated proteins are packed into chromosomes. Changes in this structure can affect DNA replication and gene expression. The variants in MLL2 resulted in the production of a shortened, nonfunctional protein.

To validate their finding, the researchers sequenced MLL2 in 43 additional cases. In total, they found 33 distinct MLL2 mutations in 35 of the 53 families (66%).

"Our findings strongly suggest that alterations in the MLL2 gene are a major cause of Kabuki syndrome," says Shendure.

"It is clear that there may be additional genes in which variants cause Kabuki syndrome, as approximately one-third of cases did not have MLL2 mutations," Bamshad adds. "To find these, it will be important to sequence the exomes of additional, well-characterized cases of Kabuki syndrome in which we don’t see MLL2 mutations."

Source:
The above story is reprinted from materials provided by the National Institutes of Health.

Types of Developmental Disabilities

2010-08-19T15:56:00.002+08:00

Developmental disabilities are birth defects related to a problem with how a body part or body system works. They may also be known as functional birth defects. Many of these conditions affect multiple body parts or systems.

Types of Developmental Disabilities

Nervous system disabilities

These are birth defects that affect the functioning of the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system, which can impact intelligence and learning. These conditions can also cause problems such as behavioral disorders, speech or language difficulties, convulsions, and movement disorders. Some of the common nervous system disabilities include:

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDDs) - The term IDDs describes a certain range of scores on an IQ (intelligence quotient) test. IDDs can result from a number of different conditions, including (but not limited to):
Down syndrome - a set of mental and physical characteristics related to having an extra copy of Chromosome 21.
Fragile X syndrome- the most common inherited form of IDDs caused by a defect in a specific part of the Fragile X Mental Retardation-1 gene that causes the body to produce low amounts or none of a certain protein. Without the protein, the brain doesn’t develop normally.

Autism Spectrum Disorders - a range of problems that can affect a person's communication skills, social skills, and intelligence. Because autism is diagnosed on a spectrum, people with this condition can have mild symptoms or severe symptoms; but they all have a type of autism.

Sensory-related disabilities

Sensory-related problems are often a key part of complex birth defect patterns. For instance:

Children with congenital rubella are likely to be deaf, and to develop cataracts of the eyes.
Children with Williams syndrome have trouble seeing spatial relationships between objects around them.
Those with Fragile X syndrome are often very sensitive to loud noises; they may overreact or have outbursts in reaction to such sounds.

Metabolic Disorders

This group of functional birth defects affects a person's metabolism, which is the way the body builds up, breaks down, and otherwise processes the materials it needs to function. For example, how your body breaks down sugar to create energy is a metabolic process. Two commonly known metabolic disorders include:

Phenylketonuria (PKU) - a condition in which a problem with a specific enzyme, a protein that speeds up certain chemical reactions, causes IDDs.
Hypothyroidism - a hormonal condition that, if left untreated in an infant, can cause IDDs.

Degenerative Disorders

Some infants born with degenerative disorders appear normal at birth, but then lose abilities or functions due to the in condition. In these cases, the defect is usually not detected until an older age, when the child or person starts to show signs of loss of function. Some degenerative disorders are the result of metabolic disorders.

Degenerative disorders can cause physical, mental, and sensory problems, depending on the specific defect. Rett syndrome is an example of a degenerative birth defect. This disorder, which usually affects girls, is most often caused by a specific genetic abnormality.

Source:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Developmental Disabilities. Available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/developmental_disabilities.cfm. Accessed on August 19, 2010.

Pregnant Women and Risk of Foodborne Illness

2010-05-26T10:51:00.000+08:00

A foodborne illness is a digestive problem that occurs when people eat or drink harmful microorganisms (bacteria, parasites, viruses) or chemical contaminants found in some foods or drinking water.

Women who are pregnant are at increased risk of contracting foodborne disease because during pregnancy, the mother’s immune system is weakened. This means that it will be harder for the pregnant mother’s body defense system to fight off disease causing microorganisms.

In addition, the unborn child’s immune system is not fully developed to fight off harmful foodborne microorganisms.

Here are 4 simple steps that the mother can do to prevent common foodborne illnesses.

Step 1: Clean

• Wash hands thoroughly with warm water and soap.

• Wash hands before and after handling food, and after using the bathroom, changing diapers, or handling pets.

• Wash cutting boards, dishes, utensils, and countertops with hot water and soap.

• Rinse raw fruits and vegetables thoroughly under running water.

Step 2: Separate

• Separate raw meat, poultry, and seafood from ready-to-eat foods.

• If possible, use one cutting board for raw meat, poultry, and seafood and another one for fresh fruits and vegetables.

• Place cooked food on a clean plate. If cooked food is placed on an unwashed plate that held raw meat, poultry, or seafood, bacteria from the raw food could contaminate the cooked food.

Step 3: Cook

• Cook foods thoroughly. Use a food thermometer to check the temperature. See the Apply the Heat chart for the recommended cooking times for foods from the US FDA website.

• Keep foods out of the Danger Zone: The range of temperatures at which bacteria can grow - usually between 40° F and 140° F (4° C and 60° C).

• 2-Hour Rule: Discard foods left out at room temperature for more than two hours.

Step 4: Chill

• Your refrigerator should register at 40° F (4° C) or below and the freezer at 0° F (-18° C). Place an appliance thermometer in the refrigerator, and check the temperature periodically.

• Refrigerate or freeze perishables (foods that can spoil or become contaminated by bacteria if left unrefrigerated).

• Use ready-to-eat, perishable foods (dairy, meat, poultry, seafood, produce) as soon as possible.

Source: US Food and Drug Administration, available at http://www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/HealthEducators/ucm081819

Breastfeeding Health Benefits for the Mother and Baby

2010-04-09T14:05:00.002+08:00

Breastfeeding is still the best choice for mothers and their babies. A recent study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that nearly three of four mothers breastfeed their baby.

Breastfeeding provides many health benefits to the mother and baby. Babies who are breastfed are less likely to have infections like respiratory and ear infections, diarrhea, asthma, childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes, and sudden infant death syndrome. These health benefits can even extend long beyond the time the child stops breastfeeding.

For mothers who breastfeed their babies, it can provide better bonding experiences with the child. Also, the breastfeeding mother is actually less likely to suffer from postpartum depression. Health experts believe that breastfeeding may prevent type 2 diabetes and breast cancer. Research indicates that breastfeeding may also lower the mother’s risk of having ovarian cancer.

What do experts recommend about how long to breastfeed the child?

Health experts recommend that the baby should be breastfeed exclusively for the first six months of the child’s life. This means that no other complimentary foods or liquids should be given during this time period.

After six months, the nursing mother continues to breastfeed through 12 months while adding other foods to the baby’s diet.

Truly, both babies and mothers gain many benefits from breastfeeding. Breast milk can easily be digested by the baby’s digestive system. In addition, the milk contains antibodies, which help the baby fight infections.

Source:
Breastfeeding (October 2009). Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity and Obesity (DNPAO), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Common Birth Defects Affecting the Brain and Spinal Cord

2010-02-20T12:17:00.001+08:00

Two of the most common birth defects affecting the developing fetus are spina bifida and anencephaly. These are generally called neural tube defects (NTD) affecting the brain or spinal cord of the growing baby in the mother womb.

The neural tube is a narrow channel that folds and closes during the first few weeks of pregnancy to form the brain and spinal cord, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. If the neural tube fails to close completely, it can cause a neural tube defect.

Spina bifida

Spina bifida, the most common birth defect in the United States, occurs when the neural tube that forms the spinal cord and spinal column does not close completely during the first month of fetal development. According to recent estimates, about 1, 500 babies are born with spina bifida in the United States each year.

Usually, there is damage to nerves below the affected area of the spinal column that can cause paralysis of the legs. As a result, the child will have difficulty or complete inability to walk in the future. In some cases, buildup of fluid in the brain may occur - a condition called hydrocephalus.

Other problems affecting babies with spina bifida include difficulty of controlling bowel and bladder functions and meningitis. Meningitis is an infection that occurs in tissues surrounding the brain.

Depending on the severity of the condition, children with spina bifida may have learning difficulties later in life. This may include difficulty of paying attention and language and reading problems.

Severe spina bifida may result in death.

Anencephaly

Anencephaly, a serious neural tube defect, occurs when the neural tube that forms the brain does not properly close. It can result in the baby lacking some parts of the brain. Sometimes, parts of the skull and scalp may not develop as well. According CDC estimates, about 1, 000 babies are born with anencephaly in United States each year.

Because of the seriousness of the condition, most babies born with anencephaly die. They may either be stillborn or die shortly after delivery. Those who survive will die before 1 year of age, according to the CDC.

Can neural tube defects be prevented?

Experts recommend that women who are of childbearing age should get 400 micrograms (mcg) of folic acid every day. Folic acid is a type of B vitamin that helps in forming new cells.

According to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), daily intake of enough folic acid before and during pregnancy can prevent the development of most neural tube defects.

It is important that the multivitamin the woman takes contains 400 mcg of folic acid. A single serving of a fortified cereal may also just be enough to get the recommended amount of folic acid. Remember to read the food label of the cereal making sure that each serving contains 400 micrograms of folic acid.

Related Topic: Daily Folic Acid (Folate)Intake Can Prevent Certain Birth Defects

Sources:
Spina Bifida (March 2009). Retrieved on February 20, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/SpinaBifida.htm

Anencephaly (March 2009). Retrieved on February 20, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/Anencephaly.htm

Neural Tube Defects (May 2007). Retrieved on February 20, 2010, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/neural_tube_defects.cfm

Daily Folic Acid (Folate) Intake Can Prevent Certain Birth Defects

2010-02-20T12:00:00.001+08:00

Two common birth defects affecting the developing fetus are spina bifida and anencephaly. These two conditions occur when the neural tube—a narrow channel that commonly folds and closes during the first month of pregnancy to form the brain and spinal cord—fails to close and develop into the brain or spinal cord. Spina bifida and anencephaly are called neural tube defects (NDT).

Spina bifida occurs when the neural tube that forms the spinal cord fails to close completely. Anencephaly, on the other hand, results when the neural tube forming the brain does not close. These birth defects can be prevented when the mother regularly takes the recommended dose of folic acid.

Everybody needs folic acid. The body uses this B vitamin to help form new cells. Folic acid is equally important for women in their reproductive years as this vitamin can help prevent neural tube defects by as much as 50% to 70%, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

In 1992, the US Public Health Service has recommended that all women from the ages of 15 to 44 take folic acid every day. The recommended dose of folic acid that women need to take each day is 400 micrograms (mcg).

Although folic acid can be obtained from food sources, the amounts of food that one should take to get enough folic acid should be in large proportions. For example, one would have to eat 10 bunches of broccoli to get enough folic acid. This could be difficult for most people to eat that much food. Also, this would probably be impractical as buying large amounts of food high in folic acid would be more expensive than taking the vitamin.

It is, however, still important to maintain a well balanced diet as vitamins should not be used as replacement for food.

When should a woman start taking folic acid?

The CDC recommends that women of childbearing age should get enough folic acid everyday. According to the CDC, about half of the pregnancies in the United States are unplanned. And because a woman may not immediately know that she is pregnant during the first few weeks, taking the recommended dose of folic acid everyday is necessary.

The neural tube of the baby develops into the brain and spinal cord during the first few weeks of pregnancy. It is for this reason that it is important for a woman to have enough folic acid to protect the unborn child from neural tube defects.

Related Post: Common Birth Defects Affecting the Brain and Spinal Cord

Source: This article was revised from my originally published article at Associated Content entitled: "Importance of Folic Acid (Folate) in Preventing Certain Birth Defects."

Epilepsy (Seizure Disorder)

2009-12-06T01:20:00.004+08:00

Epilepsy, also called seizure disorder, is a brain disorder that causes a person to have repeated seizures. Many cases of epilepsy have no known cause. However, some people may have the condition because of an illness, a brain injury, or abnormal brain development.

Seizures occur when nerve cells or neurons in the brain send out wrong signals. The normal pattern of neuron activity then is disturbed.

This disturbance in neuron activity can cause symptoms of epilepsy including strange sensations, emotions or behavior; convulsions; muscle spasms; and loss of consciousness. The signs of epilepsy may be different from person to person.

Having seizure does not necessarily mean a person has epilepsy. Having two or more episodes of seizure may indicate that a person is epileptic.

To diagnose epilepsy, the doctor may recommend the use of diagnostic procedures such as EEG (Electroencephalograph) or brain scans.

Treatment

Currently, there is no cure for epilepsy. However, once epilepsy has been diagnosed, it is important to begin treatment right away. Seizures in people with epilepsy can be controlled with medicines. Surgery or implanted devices such as the vagus nerve stimulator may help those people who do not respond well to medications. According to the National Library of Medicine, special diets may help some children with epilepsy.

Having epilepsy need not be a burden. Most people with epilepsy lead outwardly normal lives. Most cases of epilepsy can be controlled with proper medication. There are several organizations who provide assistance on how to cope with epilepsy, such as the Epilepsy Foundation, the Epilepsy Institute, and the Family Caregiver Alliance/ National Center on Caregiving.

Additional informations about the condition:
Epilepsy Journals from The Lancet

Sources:
Epilepsy Information. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Accessed: December 7, 2009

Epilepsy. Medline Plus, National Library of Medicine. Accessed: December 7, 2009

Page Last Revised: September 15, 2010

Meningitis Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

2009-12-06T00:09:00.002+08:00

Meningitis is an inflammatory disease affecting the membranes surrounding or covering the brain and spinal cord. The meninges are layers of membrane that surround and protect the brain and also the spinal cord. Meningitis means inflammation of the meninges, which can be caused by infections with bacteria or viruses. When bacteria causes the meninges to become inflamed, it is called bacterial meningitis. Viral meningitis is the term used when it is caused by a virus infection.

Although anyone can get meningitis, the condition is more common in people who have trouble fighting infections or poor immune system.

Viral meningitis, the most common type, usually resolves in ten days or less. Bacterial meningitis is a rare form of meningitis. However, it can be deadly if not treated promptly.

Symptoms of Meningitis

Meningitis symptoms may appear suddenly, which include:

 high fever

 sever and persistent headache

 stiff neck

 nausea

 vomiting

 behavioral changes such as confusion and sleepiness

 difficulty in walking

In infants, meningitis symptoms may include irritability, fatigue, lack of appetite, and fever. If you have these symptoms or you think that your child has meningitis, consult your doctor right away.

Treatment

Treatment of meningitis depends on the cause. Antiviral drugs are used to kill the viruses causing viral meningitis. Bacterial meningitis, on the other hand, is treated with antibiotics. Other medicines may be prescribed to treat the symptoms of meningitis. For example, anticonvulsants for the prevention or treatment of seizures, corticosteroids for brain swelling and inflammation, and over-the-counter medicines to relieve fever and headache.

Early diagnosis and treatment of meningitis can help prevent serious problems, including death.

Sources:
Meningitis and Encephalitis. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Accessed: December 6, 2009

Meningitis. Medline Plus, National Library of Medicine. Accessed: December 6, 2009

Cerebral Palsy Signs, Causes, and Treatment Options

2009-12-05T23:28:00.002+08:00

Cerebral palsy, also called CP, refers to a group of disorders affecting a person’s ability to move and to maintain balance and posture. The condition usually appears during infancy or early childhood but does not get worse over time. Although cerebral palsy affects muscle movement, it is not caused by problems in muscles or nerves. It primarily affects parts of the brain that control movements of muscles and posture.

Most children with cerebral palsy are born with it. However, the condition may not be detected until months or years later. Cerebral palsy signs usually appear before the age of 3. Early signs of cerebral palsy in babies may include difficulty or slow to roll over, sit, crawl, smile or walk. In children, the condition may cause lack of coordination when performing normal movements; stiffness or tightness of muscles with exaggerated reflexes, called spasticity; and difficulty in walking.

Cerebral palsy may also occur after birth. It may be caused by brain damage during the first few months or years of life, infections in the brain, or head injury from vehicular accidents, a fall, or child abuse.

Cerebral Palsy Treatment

Unfortunately, there is no cure for cerebral palsy. However, treatment can improve the lives of those who have it. Many children go on to enjoy near-normal adult lives if the signs or symptoms are properly managed.

Treatment of cerebral palsy may include physical and occupational therapy, speech therapy, drugs to control seizures, relax muscle spasms, and relieve pain; surgery; braces; wheelchairs and rolling walkers; and communication aids such as computers with attached voice synthesizers.

Sources:
Cerebral Palsy. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Accessed: December 6, 2009

Cerebral Palsy. Medline Plus, National Library of Medicine. Accessed: December 6, 2009

Menopause

2008-03-19T14:13:00.005+08:00

Menopause is a stage in a woman's life where menstrual period and fertility naturally stops. It happens because the woman's ovary stops producing the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

All women go through menopause, usually between the ages of 40 and 55. A woman has reached menopause when she has gone 12 months without having a period.

What are the signs and symptoms of menopause?

Although menopause itself is the time of a woman's last period, symptoms can begin several years before that (in a stage called peri-menopause).

Menopause and peri-menopause affect every woman differently. There are some common symptoms, including:

Changes in periods (they may be shorter or longer, heavier or lighter, or have more or less time in between)
Hot flashes
Night sweats
Trouble sleeping through the night
Vaginal dryness
Mood changes
Hair loss or thinning on the head, more hair growth on the face

When estrogen is no longer produced by the ovary, this can lead to osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a condition where bones become weak and break easily.
Also, women are at greater risk for heart disease after they go through menopause.

Are there treatments for menopause?

In the past, some women would take hormones to replace the estrogen and progesterone their bodies were losing during menopause. Taking these hormones, known as hormone replacement therapy (HRT), might help with menopause symptoms and with bone loss.
But new research shows that, for some women, taking hormones has risks, including greater risk of heart disease, stroke, blood clots, and breast cancer. Therefore, for post-menopausal women, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration advises that HRT be used for the shortest time and at the lowest doses possible.

For more information on menopause and HRT, visit the Women’s Health Initiative Web site at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/whi.

Reference/Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (December 2006). Menopause. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/menopause.cfm

Updated: February 24, 2009

Woman's Menstruation and the Menstrual Cycle

2008-03-19T12:33:00.004+08:00

The menstrual cycle is the process by which a woman’s body gets ready for the chance of a pregnancy each month. The average menstrual cycle is 28 days from the start of one to the start of the next, but it can range from 21 days to 35 days.

In the beginning of the menstrual cycle, levels of estrogen rise, causing the lining of the uterus to grow and get thicker. An egg starts to mature in one of the ovaries. Around the middle of the cycle, the egg leaves the ovary, a process called ovulation.

The egg begins to travel down the fallopian tube to the uterus. If the egg becomes fertilized by a sperm cell and attaches to the uterus, the woman becomes pregnant. If not, the uterus does not need the extra thick lining and it begins to shed.

This shedding of the uterine lining through the vagina is known as menstruation.

What is menstruation?

Menstruation is a part of a woman’s monthly menstrual cycle in which blood and tissue are discharged through the vagina. It is also commonly called a period or menstrual period.

Most menstrual periods last from three to five days. In the United States, most girls start menstruating at age 12, but girls can start menstruating between the ages of 8 and 16.

What are the signs of menstruation?

Bleeding from the vagina is the primary sign of menstruation. Some women have other symptoms around the time of menstruation, including:

Cramping, bloating, and sore breasts
Food cravings
Mood swings and irritability
Headache and fatigue

If these symptoms become severe, it might be a sign of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). PMS usually occurs one or two weeks before menstruation. PMS may affect a woman of any age who has menstrual periods. If the symptoms disrupt your lifestyle, you may want to seek medical care.

What if I have a problem with my menstrual periods?

A stop in menstrual periods (called amenorrhea), or other menstrual irregularities could be a sign that something is wrong. Menstrual irregularities can mean bleeding between your periods, skipping a period, or having very heavy menstrual periods. It is important to tell your health care provider about these symptoms.

Are there treatments for painful menstruation?

Placing a heating pad on the abdomen and over-the-counter pain relievers may help lessen the symptoms. It is important to tell your health care provider if you have severe cramping and pain or other symptoms, during menstruation.

Source: Scientific information provided by The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (September 2006). Menstruation and the Menstrual Cycle. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/menstruation_and_the_menstrual_cycle.cfm

Precocious Puberty

2008-03-19T12:16:00.002+08:00

The word “precocious” means developing unusually early. Precocious puberty occurs when puberty begins before age 8 years for girls and before age 9 years for boys.

The signs of precocious puberty are the same as those for regular puberty. The difference is that they start to occur at a younger age than normal.

For females, signs include development of breasts, pubic hair, and underarm hair; increased growth rate; and menstrual bleeding.
In boys, signs include growth of the penis and testicles, development of pubic and underarm hair, muscle growth, voice changes, and increased growth rate.

What causes precocious puberty?

Sometimes precocious puberty is the result of a problem in the brain that stimulates puberty to begin early.

Some of the conditions that may lead to precocious puberty include:

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
McCune-Albright syndrome
Gonadal (testicles or ovaries) or adrenal gland disorders or tumors
hCG-secreting tumors
Hypothalamic hamartoma

But in many cases, there is no identifiable cause for the precocious puberty. Puberty just starts earlier than normal. If you think your child is beginning puberty early, talk to your child’s health care provider.

What is the treatment for precocious puberty?

Treatment for precocious puberty can help stop puberty until the child is closer to the normal time for sexual development. One reason to consider treating precocious puberty is that rapid growth and bone maturation can prevent a child from reaching his or her full height potential.

Children grow rapidly in height during puberty and reach their final adult height after puberty. Children who go through puberty too early may not reach their full adult height potential because their growth stops too soon.

Another reason to consider treating precocious puberty is that a young child may not be psychologically ready for the physical and hormonal changes that occur in puberty.

If precocious puberty is caused by a specific medical problem, treating the underlying problem can often stop the puberty. In addition, precocious puberty can often be stopped by medical treatment to block the hormones that cause puberty.

Reference/Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (January 2007). Precocious Puberty. National Institues of Health. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/precocious_puberty.cfm

Puberty

2008-03-19T11:49:00.003+08:00

Discussions about puberty and the changes that go with it.

Puberty is the time when a person becomes sexually mature. It is a physical change that usually happens between ages 10 and 14 for girls and ages 12 and 16 for boys. Others may start puberty as early as 9 years of age.

According to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), some African American girls start earlier than white girls, making their age range for puberty 9 to 14.

Puberty starts when a part of the brain called the hypothalmus begins releasing a hormone called gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). GnRH then signals the pituitary gland to release two more hormones - luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – to start sexual development.

What are the signs of puberty?

Puberty affects boys and girls differently.

In females:

The first sign of puberty is usually breast development.
Other signs are the growth of hair in the pubic area and armpits, and acne.
Menstruation (or a period) usually happens last.

In males:

Puberty usually begins with the testicles and penis getting bigger.
Then hair grows in the pubic area and armpits.
Muscles grow, the voice deepens, and acne and facial hair develop as puberty continues.

Both boys and girls usually have a growth spurt (a rapid increase in height) that lasts for about 2 or 3 years along with the signs listed above. This brings them closer to their adult height, which they reach after puberty.

Does everyone go through puberty the same way?

Puberty can have different patterns, so everyone may not go through puberty in the same way. For example:

Some children may begin puberty earlier than normal, a condition called precocious puberty. If signs of puberty occur early (before age 7 or 8 for girls and before age 9 for boys), parents and caregivers should talk to their child’s health care provider to see if treatment is needed.
Other children may have delayed puberty, meaning the process begins later than normal. Sometimes there is a reason for puberty starting late; for example, many young girls who are gymnasts start puberty later than those who are not gymnasts. But in many cases, there is no known reason for the delay.

If development is later than normal, parents and caregivers should talk to a health care provider, who can make sure there is not a medical condition causing the delay. But most kids with delayed puberty need no treatment and begin puberty on their own body’s time.

Reference/Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (January 2007). Puberty. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Puberty.cfm

Pelvic Pain

2008-03-19T11:23:00.002+08:00

Pelvic pain is a general term used to describe pain that occurs mostly or only in the lower abdomen area. It may be steady pain, or pain that comes and goes.

In some cases the pain may be severe and might affect daily activities. In other cases, the pain might be dull and occur only during the menstrual cycle. Pelvic pain also describes pain that occurs during sexual intercourse.

What conditions cause pelvic pain?

In general, pelvic pain signals that there might be a problem with one of the organs in your pelvic area: uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix, vagina, urinary tract, lower intestines, or rectum. Or the pain might be a symptom of infection. Sometimes pelvic pain can be caused by muscular and skeletal problems.

There are some common health conditions that are often associated with pelvic pain, including:

Vulvodynia - describes chronic pain or discomfort of the vulva (the external female genitalia). Vulvodynia can cause burning, stinging, irritation, or rawness of the vulva. The type of pain can be different for each woman. Pain may move around or always be in the same place. It can be constant, or come and go.

Endometriosis - occurs when tissues that usually line a woman’s uterus instead grow outside the uterus. These tissues often grow on the surfaces of organs in the pelvis or abdomen, where they are not supposed to grow. The two most common symptoms of endometriosis are pain and infertility.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) - a common infection that is caused by bacteria in parts of the urinary tract, such as the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Women are more likely to get urinary tract infections than men are. UTI may cause pain in the lower abdomen, pain while urinating, and needing to urinate often.

Uterine Fibroids - are the most common, non-cancerous tumors in women of childbearing age. The fibroids are made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow within and around the wall of the uterus. Symptoms can include heavy or painful periods, pain during sex, and lower back pain, among others.

What is the treatment for pelvic pain?

Treatment will depend on the cause of pain, intensity of thpain, and how often pain occurs. It may be difficult to find the cause of your pelvic pain but your health care provider will likely run a number of tests to find the cause of your pain.

Your health care provider may prescribe pain medication or antibiotics to treat the pain. For other conditions, treatment may be more involved, such as surgery for endometriosis.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (May 2007). Pelvic Pain. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Pelvic_Pain.cfm

Pregnancy

2008-03-18T21:03:00.003+08:00

General Discussion About Pregnancy.

One of the happiest moments in a couple's life is finding out that you are going to have a baby.

Pregnancy is the term used to describe when a woman has a growing fetus inside of her. In most cases, the fetus grows in the uterus. Human pregnancy lasts about 40 weeks, or just more than 9 months, from the start of the last menstrual period to childbirth.

What are the signs of pregnancy?

The primary sign of pregnancy is missing one or more consecutive menstrual periods. However, because many women experience menstrual irregularities that may cause missed periods, women who miss a period should see their health care provider to find out whether they are pregnant or whether there is another health problem.

Others signs and symptoms of pregnancy may include:

Nausea or vomiting, morning sickness
Sore breasts or nipples
Fatigue
Headaches
Food cravings or aversions
Mood swings
Frequent urination

How do I know I’m pregnant?

The best way to find out if you are pregnant is a pregnancy test. Home pregnancy test kits are available over-the-counter and are considered highly accurate. A health care provider can also do a pregnancy test.

NICHD research in the 1970s found that high levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadatropin (HCG) in the urine were associated with pregnancy. This research led to the development of the home pregnancy test that is commercially available today.

If you think you may be pregnant, or have a positive home pregnancy test, see a health care provider.

What is prenatal care and why is it important?

Prenatal care is the care woman gets during a pregnancy. Getting early and regular prenatal care is important for the health of both mother and the developing baby.

In addition, health care providers are now recommending a woman see a health care provider for preconception care, before she is even trying to get pregnant.

Health care providers recommend women take the following steps to ensure the best health outcome for mother and baby:

Getting at least 400 micrograms of folic acid every day to help prevent many types of neural tube defects. Health care providers recommend taking folic acid both before and during pregnancy.
Being properly vaccinated for certain diseases (such as chicken pox and rubella) that could harm a developing fetus—it is important to have the vaccinations before becoming pregnant
Maintaining a healthy weight and diet and getting regular physical activity before, during, and after pregnancy
Avoiding smoking, alcohol, or drug use before, during, and after pregnancy

What is a high-risk pregnancy?

All pregnancies involve a certain degree of risk to both mother and baby. But, factors present before pregnancy or that develop during pregnancy can place the mother and baby at higher risk for problems. Women with high-risk pregnancies may need care from specialists or a team of health care providers to help promote healthy pregnancy and birth.

Factors present before pregnancy that can increase risk may include:

Young or old maternal age
Being overweight or underweight
Having had problems in previous pregnancies, such as miscarriage, stillbirth, or preterm labor or birth
Pre-existing health conditions, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or HIV/AIDS

During pregnancy, problems may also develop even in a woman who was previously healthy. These may include (but are not limited to) gestational diabetes or preeclampsia/eclampsia.

Getting good prenatal care and seeing a health care provider regularly during pregnancy are important ways to promote a healthy pregnancy.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)(February 2008). Pregnancy. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pregnancy.cfm

Turner Syndrome

2008-03-18T20:38:00.002+08:00

Turner syndrome is a disorder caused by a partially or completely missing X chromosome. It is a condition that only affects females.

Most people have 46 chromosomes in each cell – 23 from their mother and 23 from their father. The 23rd pair of chromosomes is called the sex chromosomes – X and Y – because they determine whether a person is male or female. Most females have XX in most of their cells and most males have XY in most of their cells.

Females with Turner syndrome are missing all or part of one of their X chromosomes.

What are the symptoms of Turner syndrome?

People with Turner syndrome can have a wide variety of symptoms. Some people may have more severe problems, and others may have mild symptoms. Turner syndrome may affect many areas, such as:

Appearance – Features may include short neck, low hairline at the back of the neck, low-set ears, hands and feet that are swollen or puffy at birth, and soft nails that turn upward.
Stature – Children with Turner grow more slowly than other kids and without treatment tend to be very short as adults.
Puberty/Reproduction – Most individuals with Turner syndrome lose ovarian function in early childhood and do not start puberty at a normal age. These women usually cannot become pregnant naturally.
Cardiovascular – Some individuals with Turner syndrome have structural problems with their hearts or major blood vessels. For this reason, everyone with Turner syndrome needs a thorough cardiologic evaluation at the time of diagnosis. High blood pressure also affects about 20 percent of girls and 40 percent of adults with Turner syndrome.
Kidney – Some people with Turner have kidneys that appear to be structurally abnormal, but their kidney function is usually normal.
Osteoporosis – Women with Turner syndrome who do not get adequate estrogen often get osteoporosis, which can cause loss of height, and increased bone fractures.
Diabetes – People with Turner syndrome are at higher risk for Type II diabetes.
Thyroid – Many people with Turner have thyroid problems, usually hypothyroidism, or an under-active thyroid.
Cognitive – Even though people with Turner syndrome have normal intelligence, some have problems with specific visual-spatial coordination tasks (such as mentally rotating objects in space) and may have trouble learning math (geometry and arithmetic).

What are the treatments for Turner syndrome?

Although there is no cure for Turner syndrome, there are some treatments that can help minimize the symptoms.

Human growth hormone (hGH) given in early childhood can often increase adult height by a few inches.
Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) can help start up secondary sexual development that normally begins at puberty for girls without Turner (such as breast development or developing wider hips). Health care providers may prescribe ERT to girls who haven’t started menstruating by age 15.
Assistive reproductive therapies, such as egg donation, may help some women with Turner get pregnant.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (February 2007). Turner Syndrome. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Turner_Syndrome.cfm

Urinary Tract Infections (UTI)

2008-03-18T20:16:00.003+08:00

A urinary tract infection is a common infection that is caused by bacteria in parts of the urinary tract, such as the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Women are more likely to get urinary tract infections than men are.

What are the symptoms of a urinary tract infection?

Not everyone with a urinary tract infection has symptoms, but most people have at least some symptoms. Signs of a urinary tract infection include:

Pain or stinging when urinating
Needing to urinate often or really badly
Urine that smells bad or looks milky, cloudy, or reddish in color
Pain in the lower belly (abdomen)
Feeling tired, shaky or having a fever

Are the symptoms of a urinary tract infection different for children?

Symptoms of a urinary tract infection are often harder to recognize in children.

If a child is irritable, is not eating normally, has an unexplained fever that doesn’t go away, has incontinence or loose bowels, or is not thriving, then he or she may have a urinary tract infection. The child should see a health care provider immediately.

What is the treatment for a urinary tract infection?

Urinary tract infections are treated with antibiotics to get rid of the infection. Pregnant women with urinary tract infections are more likely to get kidney infections and so quick treatment is especially important for these women. If you are pregnant and think you have a urinary tract infection, see your health care provider as soon as possible.

How can I prevent a urinary tract infection?

There are some things women can do to make it less likely they will get urinary tract infections, especially if they get them often.

Drink plenty of water every day.
Urinate when you need to, don’t hold it in.
Wipe from front to back to prevent bacteria from entering the vagina or urethra.
Avoid use of feminine hygiene sprays or douches.
If you get a lot of urinary tract infections and use spermicides or creams that kill sperm, talk to your health care provider about using other forms of birth control.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (August 2006). Urinary Tract Infections.
Retrieved March 18, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/urinary_tract_infections.cfm

Vulvodynia

2008-03-18T19:58:00.002+08:00

Vulvodynia is a term used to describe chronic pain or discomfort of the vulva. The vulva, also known as external female genitalia, includes the labia ("lips" or folds of skin at the opening of the vagina), the clitoris, and vaginal opening.

Health care providers do not know what causes vulvodynia. It is diagnosed when other causes of vulvar pain, such as infection or skin diseases, are ruled out.

According to an NICHD-funded research, it is estimated that as many as 16 percent of women suffer from chronic vulvar pain at some time in their lives.

What are the symptoms of vulvodynia?

The main symptom of vulvodynia is pain. The type of pain can be different for each woman.

Vulvodynia can cause burning, stinging, irritation, or rawness of the vulva. Pain may move around or always be in the same place. It can be constant, or come and go.

What is the treatment for vulvodynia?

There is currently no cure for vulvodynia. But there are treatments for some of the symptoms. Some current treatments include local pain relievers (medications), physical therapy, changes in diet, and drug treatment.

Because each woman’s symptoms may be different, no one treatment works all the time or is right for everyone. If you have chronic vulvar pain or discomfort, talk to your health care provider about possible treatments.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (August 2006). Vulvodynia. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Vulvodynia.cfm

Hyperparathyroidism

2008-03-16T13:30:00.005+08:00

Hyperparathyroidism is a condition that occurs when the parathyroid gland, also called the parathyroids, secretes too much parathyroid hormone (PTH). It may be classified as primary or secondary hyperparathyroidism. In primary hyperparathyroidism, the disorder originates in the parathyroid: one or more enlarged, overactive parathyroid glands secretes to much PTH. Secondary hyperparathyroidism occurs when a problem such as kidney failure causes the parathyroids to be overactive.

The parathyroid glands are four pea-sized glands located on the thyroid gland in the neck.

Though their names are similar, the thyroid and parathyroid glands are entirely different glands, each producing distinct hormones with specific functions. The parathyroid glands secrete PTH, a substance that helps maintain the correct balance of calcium and phosphorus in the body. PTH regulates the level of calcium in the blood, release of calcium from bone, absorption of calcium in the intestine, and excretion of calcium in the urine.

When the level of calcium in the blood falls too low, the parathyroid glands secrete just enough PTH to restore the blood calcium level.

If the parathyroid glands secrete too much hormone, as happens in primary hyperparathyroidism, the balance is disrupted: Blood calcium rises. This condition of excessive calcium in the blood, called hypercalcemia, is what usually signals the doctor that something may be wrong with the parathyroid glands. In 85 percent of people with primary hyperparathyroidism, a benign tumor called an adenoma has formed on one of the parathyroid glands, causing it to become overactive. Benign tumors are noncancerous. In most other cases, the excess hormone comes from two or more enlarged parathyroid glands, a condition called hyperplasia. Very rarely, hyperparathyroidism is caused by cancer of a parathyroid gland.

This excess PTH triggers the release of too much calcium into the bloodstream. The bones may lose calcium, and too much calcium may be absorbed from food. The levels of calcium may increase in the urine, causing kidney stones. PTH also lowers blood phosphorus levels by increasing excretion of phosphorus in the urine.

What causes hyperparathyroidism?

In most cases of hyperparathyroidism, doctors don't know the cause. The vast majority of cases occur in people with no family history of the disorder. Only about 5 percent of cases can be linked to an inherited problem. Familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 is a rare, inherited syndrome that affects the parathyroids as well as the pancreas and the pituitary gland. Another rare genetic disorder, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, is sometimes confused with typical hyperparathyroidism. Each accounts for about 2 percent of primary hyperparathyroidism cases.

What are the symptoms of hyperparathyroidism?

A person with hyperparathyroidism may have severe symptoms, subtle ones, or none at all. Increasingly, routine blood tests that screen for a wide range of conditions, including high calcium levels, are alerting doctors to people who have mild forms of the disorder even though they are symptom-free.

When symptoms do appear, they are often mild and nonspecific, such as a feeling of weakness and fatigue, depression, or aches and pains. With more severe disease, a person may have a loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation, confusion or impaired thinking and memory, and increased thirst and urination. Patients may have thinning of the bones without symptoms, but with risk of fractures. Increased calcium and phosphorus excretion in the urine may cause kidney stones.

How is hyperparathyroidism diagnosed?

Hyperparathyroidism is diagnosed when tests show that blood levels of calcium and parathyroid hormone are too high. Other diseases can cause high blood calcium levels, but only in hyperparathyroidism is the elevated calcium the result of too much parathyroid hormone. A blood test that accurately measures the amount of parathyroid hormone has simplified the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism.

Once the diagnosis is established, other tests may be done to assess complications. Because high PTH levels can cause bones to weaken from calcium loss, a measurement of bone density can help assess bone loss and the risk of fractures. Abdominal images may reveal the presence of kidney stones and a 24-hour urine collection may provide information on kidney damage, the risk of stone formation, and the risk of familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia.

How is hyperparathyroidism treated?

Surgery to remove the enlarged gland (or glands) is the main treatment for the disorder and cures it in 95 percent of operations.

Calcimimetics are a new class of drug that turns off secretion of PTH. They have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of hyperparathyroidism secondary to kidney failure with dialysis, and primary hyperparathyroidism caused by parathyroid cancer. They have not been approved for primary hyperparathyroidism, but some physicians have begun prescribing calcimimetics for some patients with this condition. Patients can discuss this class of drug in more detail with their physicians.

Some patients who have mild disease may not need immediate treatment, according to panels convened by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 2002. Patients who are symptom-free, whose blood calcium is only slightly elevated, and whose kidneys and bones are normal may wish to talk with their physicians about long-term monitoring. In the 2002 recommendation, periodic monitoring would consist of clinical evaluation, measurement of serum calcium levels, and bone mass measurement. If the patient and physician choose long-term follow-up, the patient should try to drink lots of water, get plenty of exercise, and avoid certain diuretics, such as the thiazides. Immobilization (inability to move) and gastrointestinal illness with vomiting or diarrhea can cause calcium levels to rise. Patients with hyperparathyroidism should seek medical attention if they find themselves immobilized, vomiting, or having diarrhea.

Surgery for hyperparathyroidism is highly successful with a low complication rate when performed by surgeons experienced with this condition. About 1 percent of patients undergoing surgery experience damage to the nerves controlling the vocal cords, which can affect speech. One to 5 percent of patients lose all their parathyroid tissue and thus develop chronic low calcium levels, which may require treatment with calcium or vitamin D. The complication rate is slightly higher for hyperplasia than it is for adenoma since more extensive surgery is needed.

Related Topic: Hypoparathyroidism

For more informations about hyperparathyroidism and other diseases of the endocrine system, please visit the Endocrine Health Web site.

Source: National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information (May 2006). Hyperparathyroidism (NIH Publication No. 6–3425). Retrieved March 15, 2008, from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Web site: http://www.endocrine.niddk.nih.gov/pubs/hyper/hyper.htm

Image Credit: National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

This Page Updated: February 24, 2009

Developmental Disabilities

2008-03-13T19:40:00.004+08:00

Developmental disabilities are birth defects related to a problem with how a body part or body system works. They may also be known as functional birth defects. Many of these conditions affect multiple body parts or systems.

People with developmental disabilities have problems with major life activities such as language, mobility, learning, self-help, and independent living. Developmental disabilities begin anytime during development up to 22 years of age and usually last throughout a person’s lifetime.

Different types of developmental disabilities

Nervous system disabilities

These are birth defects that affect the functioning of the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system, which can impact intelligence and learning. These conditions can also cause problems such as behavioral disorders, speech or language difficulties, convulsions, and movement disorders. Some of the common nervous system disabilities include:

Mental retardation - The term mental retardation describes a certain range of scores on an IQ (intelligence quotient) test. Mental retardation can result from a number of different conditions, including (but not limited to):
Down syndrome - a set of mental and physical characteristics related to having an extra copy of Chromosome 21.

Fragile X syndrome- the most common inherited form of mental retardation caused by a defect in a specific part of the Fragile X Mental Retardation-1 gene that causes the body to produce low amounts or none of a certain protein. Without the protein, the brain doesn’t develop normally.
Autism Spectrum Disorders - a range of problems that can affect a person's communication skills, social skills, and intelligence. Because autism is diagnosed on a spectrum, people with this condition can have mild symptoms or severe symptoms; but they all have a type of autism.

Sensory-related disabilities Sensory-related problems are often a key part of complex birth defect patterns. For instance:
Children with congenital rubella are likely to be deaf, and to develop cataracts of the eyes.
Children with Williams syndrome have trouble seeing spatial relationships between objects around them.
Those with Fragile X syndrome are often very sensitive to loud noises; they may overreact or have outbursts in reaction to such sounds.

Phenylketonuria (PKU) - a condition in which a problem with a specific enzyme, a protein that speeds up certain chemical reactions, causes mental retardation.
Hypothyroidism - a hormonal condition that, if left untreated in an infant, can cause mental retardation.

Degenerative Disorders

Some infants born with degenerative disorders appear normal at birth, but then lose abilities or functions due to the in condition. In these cases, the defect is usually not detected until an older age, when the child or person starts to show signs of loss of function. Some degenerative disorders are the result of metabolic disorders.

Degenerative disorders can cause physical, mental, and sensory problems, depending on the specific defect. Rett syndrome is an example of a degenerative birth defect. This disorder, which usually affects girls, is most often caused by a specific genetic abnormality.

What are the available treatments for developmental disabilities?

Many developmental disabilities have no cure, but there are often ways to treat the symptoms. For example:

Children with Down syndrome can often benefit from speech therapy, occupational therapy, and exercises for gross and fine motor skills. They might also be helped by special education and attention at school. Surgery can also help correct heart defects.

People with Fragile X syndrome can get help to reduce or eliminate some of the learning, physical, social and emotional, speech and language, and sensory problems common in Fragile X. The sooner those with Fragile X get help, the more they can learn and the better their outcomes.
There are a variety of treatment options to help with the symptoms of autism spectrum disorders. This may include behavioral, occupational, physical, and speech-language therapy. In addition, educational specialists can help guide the child’s school experiences.
Girls with Rett syndrome can be treated for some of the problems associated with the condition. These treatments generally aim to slow the loss of abilities, improve or preserve movement, and encourage communication and social contact. Treatments may include help from physical therapists, occupational therapists, and speech-language therapists. Other options, such as medication or surgery are also effective for treating some of the symptoms of Rett syndrome.
Treatment for hypothyroidism, or underactive thyroid, includes daily oral hormone treatment.
The most effective treatment for PKU is a special diet that carefully limits the protein phenylalanine (Phe). People with PKU who are on this diet from birth or shortly thereafter develop normally and usually have no symptoms of PKU.

Sources: National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (October, 2004). Developmental Disabilities. Retrieved March 13, 2008, from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services. Web site: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/dd1.htm

National Institute on Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)(February,2007). Developmental Disabilities. Retrieved March 13, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/developmental_disabilities.cfm

Hypoparathyroidism

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Hypoparathyroidism is a condition in which the body doesn’t make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH).

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands located in the neck behind the thyroid gland. The parathyroid gland produces a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH).

PTH regulates the amount of calcium and phosphorus in your body’s bones and blood. Decreased levels of PTH lead to low levels of calcium and high levels of phosphorus in the blood. This imbalance can lead to problems with bones, muscles, skin, and nerve endings.

The most common cause of hypoparathyroidism is an injury to the parathyroid glands that may occur during a neck surgery.

It other cases, hypoparathyroidism is present at birth or may be associated with an autoimmune disease that affects the parathyroids along with other glands in the body, such as the thyroid, ovaries, or adrenal glands. An autoimmune disease means that the body's own defenses are attcking normal tissues of the body.

Hypoparathyroidism is very rare. It is different from hyperparathyroidism, a much more common condition in which the body makes too much PTH.

What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?

Symptoms of hypoparathyroidism may include:

Tingling in the lips, fingers, and toes
Dry hair, brittle nails, and dry, coarse skin
Muscle cramps and pain in the face, hands, legs, and feet
Cataracts on the eyes
Malformations of the teeth, including weakened tooth enamel and misshapen roots of the teeth
Loss of memory
Headaches
Severe muscle spasms (also called tetany) and convulsions

How is hypoparathyroidism treated?

The goal of treatment for hypoparathyroidism is to restore the body’s calcium and phosphorus to normal levels. Calcium carbonate and vitamin D supplements are the only currently approved treatment. However, National Institutes of Health (NIH) studies have shown the investigational drug PTH to work well as an alternative therapy.

Outcomes are usually good and the body grows normally if hypoparathyroidism is diagnosed and treated early.

Complications:

If hypoparathyroidism is left untreated, complications can include a blocked airway due to severe muscle spasms, stunted growth, malformed teeth, development of cataracts, and calcium deposits in the brain.

Related Topic: Hyperparathyroidism

The Endocrine Health Web site has more informations about Hypoparathyroidism and other diseases or disorders of the Endocrine System.

Reference: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)(March, 2007). Hypoparathyroidism. Retrieved March 13, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institues of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/hypoparathyroidism.cfm

This Page Last Revised: February 24, 2009

Amenorrhea

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Amenorrhea is defined the absence of a menstrual period. It may be classified as primary or secondary amenorrhea.

*Primary amenorrhea is when a young woman has not yet had a period by age 16.

*Secondary amenorrhea describes someone who used to have a regular period but then it stopped for at least three months (this can include pregnancy).

The main sign of amenorrhea is missing a menstrual period. According to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Dvelopment (NICHD), regular periods are a sign of overall good health. Missing a period may either mean that you are pregnant or that something is going wrong. It’s important to tell your health care provider if you miss a period so he or she can begin to find out what is happening in your body.

Amenorrhea itself is not a disease. But, is usually a sign of an underlying condition.
Depending on that condition, a woman might experience other symptoms, such as headache, vision changes, hair loss, or excess facial hair.

What are the causes of amenorrhea?

Amenorrhea is a symptom of a variety of conditions, ranging from not serious to serious.

Primary Amenorrhea

Chromosomal or genetic abnormalities can cause the eggs and follicles involved in menstruation to deplete too early in life.
Hypothalamic or pituitary diseases and physical problems, such as problems with reproductive organs, can prevent periods from starting.
Moderate or excessive exercise, eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa), extreme physical or psychological stress, or a combination of these can disrupt the normal menstrual cycle.

Secondary amenorrhea
This problem is much more common than primary amenorrhea.
Common causes include many of those listed for primary amenorrhea, as well as pregnancy, certain contraceptives, breastfeeding, mental stress, and certain medications.
Hormonal problems involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, ovary, or adrenal glands can also cause amenorrhea.
Women who have very low body weight sometimes stop getting their periods as well.
Women with premature ovarian failure stop getting regular their periods before natural menopause.

Is there a treatment for amenorrhea?

Treatment for amenorrhea depends on the cause. Sometimes lifestyle changes can help if weight, stress, or physical activity is causing the amenorrhea. Other times medications and oral contraceptives can help the problem. For more information, talk to your health care provider.

Source:National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (May, 2007). Amenorrhea. Retrieved March 12, 2008, from The NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Amenorrhea.cfm

Page Last Revised: March 27, 2009

Asperger Syndrome

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Asperger syndrome is one of a group of conditions known as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). ASDs is a group of conditions that include autism and other disorders with similar symptoms, such as problems with language and communication, and repetitive or restrictive patterns of thoughts and behavior. ASDs differ in terms of when the symptoms start, how severe they are, and the exact nature of the symptoms.

People with Asperger syndrome have autism-like problems in areas of social interaction and communication, but have normal intelligence and verbal skills. Asperger syndrome is usually thought to be the mildest of the autism spectrum disorders.

One of the most distinct symptoms of Asperger syndrome is having an obsessive interest in a single object or topic—so much so that the person ignores other objects, topics, or thoughts.

Unlike some children with autism spectrum disorders, children with Asperger syndrome tend to have good vocabularies and grammar skills. But they usually have other language problems, such as being very literal and having trouble understanding non-verbal communications, such as body language.

Other symptoms of Asperger syndrome may include:

Obsessive or repetitive routines and rituals
Motor-skill problems, such as clumsy or uncoordinated movements and delays in motor skills
Social-skill problems, especially related to communicating with others
Sensitivity to sensory information, such as light, sound, texture, and taste

What is the treatment for Asperger syndrome?

There is no cure for Asperger syndrome, but people with Asperger syndrome can live full and happy lives, especially with early treatment intervention. Studies show that early detection and intervention can greatly improve a child's development.

Treatment for Asperger syndrome can include educational and social skills training. It may also include behavioral therapy and medication for related conditions.

Visit the Autism Information Center of the Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) for more information about Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Sources:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)(May 2007). Asperger Syndrome. Retrieved March 12, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/asperger_syndrome.cfm

Autism Information Center (February, 2008). About Autism. Retrieved March 12, 2008, from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services. Web site: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/index.htm

Gestational Diabetes

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Gestational diabetes, also known as gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM, or diabetes during pregnancy, is a type of diabetes that may occur in pregnant women. If a woman gets diabetes when she is pregnant, but never had it before, then she has gestational diabetes.

Normally, your stomach and intestine break down the carbohydrate in your food into a sugar called glucose-your body’s main source of energy. After digestion, the glucose moves into your blood to provide the body with energy.

In order for the glucose to get into the cells, insulin is needed. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. If you have diabetes, either your body doesn’t make enough insulin, or your cells can’t use it the way they should. Instead, the glucose builds up in your blood, causing diabetes, or high blood sugar.

According to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), gestational diabetes occurs in about 5 percent of all pregnancies, or about 200,000 cases a year in the United States.

How do I know if I have gestational diabetes?

Health care providers will test most women who have average risk for gestational diabetes when they are between 24-28 weeks pregnant. If your risk is higher-than-average, your health care provider may test you earlier, possibly as soon as you know you are pregnant.

There are two approaches to testing for gestational diabetes:

In the one-step approach, a woman will fast for 4 to 8 hours. Then a health care provider will measure her blood sugar and will do so again 2 hours after she drinks a sugar drink. This type of test is called an oral glucose tolerance test.
In the two-step approach, a health care provider measures a woman’s blood sugar 1 hour after drinking a sugar drink. Women whose blood sugar is normal after 1 hour probably don’t have gestational diabetes. Women whose blood sugar is high after 1 hour will then have an oral glucose tolerance test to see if they have gestational diabetes.

Will gestational diabetes affect the baby?

Most women who have gestational diabetes give birth to healthy babies, especially when they control their blood sugar, eat a healthy diet, exercise, and keep a healthy weight.

In some cases, though, gestational diabetes can affect the pregnancy and baby. Some potential risks include:

The baby’s body is larger than normal—called macrosomia. A large baby may need to be delivered by a surgical procedure called cesarean section, instead of naturally through the vagina.
The baby’s blood sugar is too low—called hypoglycemia. Starting to breastfeed right away can help get more glucose to the baby. The baby may also need to get glucose through a tube into his or her blood.
The baby’s skin turns yellowish and the whites of the eyes may change color—called jaundice. This condition is easily treated and is not serious if treated.
The baby may have trouble breathing and need oxygen or other help—a conditiona called Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
The baby may have low mineral levels in the blood. This problem can causes muscle twitching or cramping, but can be treated by giving the baby extra minerals.

Treatment of Gestational Diabetes

Many women with gestational diabetes have healthy pregnancies and healthy babies because they follow a treatment plan from their health care provider. Each woman should have a specific plan designed just for her needs, but there are some general ways to stay healthy with gestational diabetes:

Know your blood sugar and keep it under control – By testing how much sugar is in your blood, it is easier to keep it in a healthy range. Women usually need to test a drop of their blood several times a day to find out their blood sugar level.
Eat a healthy diet – Your health care provider can make a plan with the best diet for you. Usually controlling carbohydrates is an important part of a healthy diet for women with gestational diabetes because carbohydrates affect blood sugar.
Get regular, moderate physical activity – Exercise can help control blood sugar levels. Your health care provider can tell you the best activities and right amount for you.
Keep a healthy weight – The amount of weight gain that is healthy for you will depend on how much you weighed before pregnancy. It is important to track your both your overall weight gain and weekly rate of gain.
Keep daily records of your diet, physical activity, and glucose level – Women with gestational diabetes should write down their blood sugar numbers, physical activity, and everything they eat and drink in a daily record book. This can help track how well the treatment is working and what, if anything, needs to be changed.
Some women with gestational diabetes will also need to take insulin to help manage their diabetes. The extra insulin can help lower their blood sugar level. Some women might also have to test their urine to see if they are getting enough glucose.

What happens after the baby is born?

For most women, blood sugar levels go back to normal quickly after the baby is born. Six weeks after the baby is born, you should have a blood test to check your blood sugar levels. The test also checks for your risk of getting diabetes in the future.

If you know you want to get pregnant again, have a blood sugar test up to three months before becoming pregnant to make sure your blood sugar level is normal.

Children whose mothers had gestational diabetes are at higher risk for obesity, abnormal glucose tolerance, and diabetes.

Women who have had gestational diabetes and children whose mothers had gestational diabetes are at higher lifetime risk for obesity and type 2 diabetes. It may be possible to prevent type 2 diabetes through lifestyle changes. Talk to your health care provider about diabetes and increased risk from gestational diabetes.

To learn more about Gestational Diabetes and other related topics visit the UDIA: Understanding Diabetes-Increasing Awareness website.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (May, 2007). Gestational Diabetes. Retrieved March 12, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Gestational_Diabetes.cfm

Preeclampsia and Eclampsia

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What are preeclampsia and eclampsia?

Preeclampsia is an abnormal condition of pregnancy marked by a sudden increase in the blood pressure after the 20th week of pregnancy. It can affect the mother’s kidney, liver, and brain. If left untreated, the condition can be fatal for the mother and/or the baby and can lead to long-term health problems.

Eclampsia is a more severe form of preeclampsia that can cause seizures and coma in the mother.

What are the symptoms of preeclampsia?

Possible signs of preeclampsia include:

High blood pressure (Hypertension)
Too much protein in the urine
Swelling in a woman’s face and hands (a woman’s feet might swell too, but swollen feet are common during pregnancy and may not signal a problem)
Systemic problems, such as headache, blurred vision, and abdominal pain

What is the treatment for preeclampsia?

According to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), the only cure for preeclampsia is delivering the fetus.

If preeclampsia develops, the health care provider may develop a plan to try to prolong the pregnancy to give the fetus more time to grow and mature. At the same time, the health care provider will closely watch the health of the mother for signs that the fetus needs to be delivered right away, even prematurely, if necessary. If the preeclampsia is severe enough and the fetus is not delivered, the mother could die. Health care providers will take steps to prevent the condition from being fatal for mother and baby.

Talk to your health care provider if you have questions about preeclampsia and delivery of the baby.

What are the risk factors for preeclampsia?

There is no proven way to prevent preeclampsia. But some women are more likely to develop it, including:

Women who have high blood pressure before becoming pregnant
Women who had high blood pressure or preeclampsia in previous pregnancies
Women who are obese
Women younger than age 20 or older than age 40
Women who are pregnant with more than one baby
Women with certain health conditions, such as diabetes or kidney disease

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (September, 2006). Preeclampsia and Eclampsia. Retrieved March 11, 2008, from the NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Preeclampsia_and_Eclampsia.cfm

Endometriosis

2008-03-11T22:29:00.000+08:00

What is endometriosis?

Endometriosis occurs when endometrial tissue-tissue that normally grows inside the uterus- instead grow on the outside. These tissues may grow on the surfaces of organs in the pelvis or abdomen, where they are not supposed to grow.

According to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), endometriosis is one of the most common gynecological diseases, affecting more than 5.5 million women in North America. An estimated 2 percent to 10 percent of women of reproductive age have endometriosis.

What are the symptoms of endometriosis?

The two most common symptoms of endometriosis are pain and infertility.
Symptoms may include the following:

Pain before or after menstrual periods, as well as during or after sex
Lower back, intestinal, or pelvic pain
Heavy menstrual periods, or spotting and bleeding between periods
Painful bowel movements or painful urination during menstrual periods
Infertility - According to the NICHD, about 30 percent to 40 percent of women with endometriosis are infertile, making it one of the top three causes for female infertility

In most cases, the symptoms of endometriosis become milder after menopause because the growths begin to get smaller.

What are the treatments for endometriosis?

There is currently no cure for endometriosis. But a variety of treatment options exist, and there are ways to minimize the symptoms caused by the condition.
Several ways to treat pain, include:

Pain medication – may be used to relieve symptoms
Hormone therapy – may be used to control the growth of endometriosis
Surgery – may be used to remove growths or control the size of very large endometriosis and to relieve pain.

Hormone treatments and surgery may help women who are unable to become pregnant. There are also other treatments for infertility associated with endometriosis.

Source: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (February, 2007). Endometriosis. Retrieved March 11, 2008, from NICHD, National Institutes of Health. Web site: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/Endometriosis.cfm

About CHHDT

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